On Justice Power and Human Nature

In 416, the Sicilian city of Egesta requested Athens’s help. Athens had been looking for an excuse to establish a presence in Sicily. Egesta promised—falsely, as the Athenians would learn too late—that it had the resources to support an Athenian expedition. The city’s assembly convened to debate whether to launch an expedition to Sicily and expand their empire, which most supported. Nicias argued against the expedition, urging Athens to secure her current empire before pursuing a larger one and noting that the Sicilians had historically preferred to ally with Sparta. If Athens failed, their enemies would be emboldened to act against them. Alcibiades countered in favor of launching the expedition, insisting the Athenians had nothing to lose as they were militarily strong and had built their empire by responding enthusiastically to requests for support. In a second speech, Nicias intended to discourage the Athenians by pointing out the tremendous resources, financial and human, that the expedition would require. However, instead of discouraging them, it made them even more eager.

Before the expedition launched, religious statues (hermae) around the city were vandalized, which citizens viewed as a bad omen. Alcibiades was accused but permitted to join the expedition, which launched with much pomp and enthusiasm. However, when he was later recalled to face charges of conspiring with Sparta and committing religious crimes, he escaped to Sparta. When the Spartans questioned his motives, Alcibiades told them that, by harming him, democratic Athens has made itself his enemy. He argued that defecting to Sparta didn’t constitute going against his own city because the Athens that committed this “injustice” against him wasn’t his city. By helping Sparta now, he wished to recover his “true” city, not just to be in the place that called itself Athens.

Thucydides suggests that Alcibiades’s enemies in Athens questioned his loyalty to democracy and accused him out of fear. He digresses to explain Athens’s fear of tyrants via the story of Aristogeiton and Harmodius. During the reign of Athenian tyrant Hippias in the sixth century, the lovers attempted to murder Hippias and his brother Hipparchus but succeeded only in murdering the latter. Hippias became increasingly paranoid and brutal after his brother’s death. Though the assassination was motivated by fear of sexual harassment rather than tyranny, Athenians developed an irrational (according to Thucydides) fear of their democracy being overthrown.

Meanwhile, in Sicily, reports of Athens’s movements reached Syracuse, and a debate about how to receive these reports ensued. Hermocrates compared Athens to Persia when it invaded Greece and noted Athens’s weaknesses, urging the populace to remain calm, confident, and courageous. Athenagoras countered by questioning the veracity of the news. A third speaker (unnamed) essentially synthesized the salient points from both speeches, exhorting the city to remain united: Syracuse should both determine the veracity of the reports and prepare to defend themselves. They requested aid from Sparta, who sent a Spartan general, Gylippus, and ships from Corinth. In Athens, the assembly approved a request for more soldiers and funds. Sparta engaged Argos in fighting, and Athens came to the latter’s defense, officially breaking the treaty.

Spartan general Gylippus arrived in Syracuse to find them on the brink of defeat, but his arrival inspired fresh courage. Nicias sent a letter to Athens, reporting the dire situation facing their forces and requesting that Athens either recall the expedition or send reinforcements. Athens chose the latter and set up a blockade to prevent Sparta from crossing into Sicily. In retaliation, Sparta planned an invasion of Attica. The Syracusans maintained their strategic advantage, and the costs of maintaining their presence compelled Athens to collect taxes.

Meanwhile, as Nicias procrastinated in making strategic decisions, Athens’s circumstances grew increasingly dire. After a significant defeat, Athenian general Demosthenes advocated for returning to Athens before the expedition suffered a disaster, but Nicias insisted on consulting soothsayers, which caused more delays. Another battle led to another defeat, and the demoralized troops wished they’d never undertaken the expedition. Syracuse, meanwhile, saw an opportunity to increase its own fame by annihilating Athens. The ensuing naval battle was fought with desperation by both sides. Syracuse triumphed—and, during a chaotic retreat, the troops were captured. The Syracusans executed Demosthenes and Nicias, and the rest of the military was destroyed, either by death or enslavement.