Analects of Confucius

“Young men should be filial in the home, and brotherly outside it; careful of what they say, but once said, stick to it; be agreeable to everyone, but develop friendship (further) with the real men; if they have any further energy left over, let them devote it to culture.”

In this passage Confucius provides the general architecture of what defines a person who exhibits the moral behavior of filial piety and brotherliness. These two virtues, however, correspond to a set of behaviors relative to two different classes of persons within Confucius’s vision of society. Behaviors enacted when one is in the presence of elders and authority figures express filiality. To be filial is to be deferent, respectful, and courteous and caring. Behaviors enacted when one is in the presence of one’s peers or of persons of one’s generation express brotherliness. To be brotherly is to treat one’s peers as one’s equal. Lastly, as Confucius notes, if one still retains further aspiration in life other than simply living in a moral way, one should aim to make contributions to culture and thereby improve the quality of life of society as a whole. These three attributes, then, are what Confucius advises young men in society to aspire to.

“Hsia-tze said: Gives weight to real worth and takes beauty lightly [or “amid changing appearances”], puts energy into being useful to his father and mother, and his whole personality into serving his prince; keeps his word with his friends; calls him unaccomplished, I say that he is accomplished.”

In this passage Confucius is providing the general characteristics of what he calls “accomplishment,” or the accomplished individual. To be accomplished, for Confucius, is not necessarily to have completed a given task or to have produced a certain product. Rather, it means to have achieved a certain degree of the cultivation of the moral self, such that people can see clearly, through this person’s actions, that they are filial toward their elders, brotherly toward their peers, and honest and reliable in their promises. The accomplished individual is the one who is not only filial and brotherly, but is also the one for whom speech and action are one and the same. 

“He said: If in governing you try to keep things levelled off in order by punishments, the people will, shamelessly, dodge. Governing them by looking straight into one’s heart and then acting on it (on conscience) and keeping order by the rites, their sense of shame will bring them not only to an external conformity but to an organic order.”

In this passage Confucius outlines the criteria for what he views to be the best method of government. Rather than establishing and upholding the laws on which society is based through the threat of punishment and use of force, Confucius argues that governing and leading by example is the more effective way forward. This is due to Confucius’s belief that if the leaders of society have cultivated manhood, then the citizens of that society will not only admire and revere their leaders but will also be conscious of when their actions fall short of the criteria of manhood. Leading by example induces the feeling of shame on the part of the population who fail to measure up to the moral character of their government, and thus, says Confucius, is the reason this method is a superior form of governance. 

“Mang-I-tze asked about filiality. He said: Don’t disobey.”

In this passage, a colleague of Confucius engages him in a dialogue regarding the nature or essence of filiality (filial piety). As seen in Confucius’s reply above, obedience is an essential component of the virtue of filiality. Obedience, however, should be understood here as respectful deferral to elders or those who know more than oneself in a given situation. What should not be taken away from a passage such as this, however, is that filiality means blind and absolute obedience. For as Confucius remarks later on in the text, one can be filial while respectfully questioning an elder or authority figure.  

“Tze-Yu asked about filiality. He said: Present-day filial piety consists in feeding the parents, as one would a dog or a horse; unless there is reverence, what difference is there?”

In this passage Confucius is further developing the concept of filiality or filial piety. For Confucius, the respect and love that is to be cultivated for one’s elders is what differentiates this characteristic from that of a shepherd or farmer, for instance. What is meant by “reverence” in this passage, then, is simply that the filial individual is one who does not treat their elders as a mere means to an end—e.g., a child does not treat their parents as simply a means of satisfying basic necessities such as food, clothing, shelter, etc. The filial individual is the one who treats their elders as an end in themselves—e.g., a child treats their parents as individuals who also have a need for feeling cared for, looked after, appreciated, and so forth. In this way, then, filiality consists in the treatment of one’s elders in a way that acknowledges their needs as well as a respectful observance of their experience and advice.

“He said: A proper man is inclusive, not sectary; the small man is sectarian and not inclusive.”

In this passage Confucius distinguishes between the individual who has cultivated moral character (proper man) and the individual who has failed to do so (small man). What distinguishes the “small man” from the “proper man” is that while the latter is open to all individuals and avoids instituting divisions among people, the former is the one who divides people among themselves. Given the fact that the Analects was written during the Warring States Period in China’s history, it comes as no surprise that Confucius would value inclusivity over divisiveness during a period of fragmented unrest among warring kingdoms from the formerly unified Zhou Dynasty. 

“He said: Yu, want a definition of knowledge? To know is to act knowledge, and, when you do not know, not to try to appear as if you did, that’s knowing.”

In this passage Confucius outlines the general principle for his theory of knowledge as it relates to moral character. Knowledge is inherently bound to the virtue or vice of one’s person. Thus, says Confucius, the moral individual knows the limits of their own understanding and acts only within the bounds of what they know. Acting outside the bounds of what one reliably knows is not a marker of courage or heroism, but a sign of one’s immaturity and a symptom of one failing to cultivate the proper character.

“1. He said: Watch a man’s means, what and how.

“2. See what starts him.

“3. See what he is at ease in.

“4. How can a man conceal his real bent?”

In this passage Confucius is giving advice to his colleagues and friends regarding the best way of measuring the moral character of an individual one does not know. Confucius opts for observing the actions, as opposed to the words or promises made by any individual. It is through actions that one is most able to grasp the true moral character of a person.

“Duke Ai asked how to keep people in order. He said: Promote the straight and throw out the twisty, and the people will keep order; promote the twisty and throw out the straight and they won’t.”

In this passage Confucius uses the contrasting metaphor of straight and crooked (twisty) as a way of differentiating between an effective and just style of governance as opposed to an ineffective and unjust governmental regime. Regarding the “straight,” Confucius has in mind the notion that people are more likely to obey and respect the government if those who govern are straightforward, honest, and transparent in their decisions. Regarding the “twisty” or cooked, Confucius believes that this style of governance only leads to the corruption of officials and the corruption of the fabric of society, which ultimately leads to division, sectarianism, and warfare. 

“1. Tze-Kung wanted to eliminate the sheep from the sacrifice to the new moon. 2. He said: You, Ts’ze, love the sheep, I love the rite.”

In this passage Confucius is in conversation with a friend and is charged with improperly appreciating rituals of sacrifice. According to his friend, Confucius prizes the lives of the sheep over and above the value of tradition and ritual. By contrast, Confucius’s point is not to elevate the lives of animals over and above the laws of society. Rather, Confucius’s point is to underscore the fact that in times of war and crises, the use of sheep can benefit the whole of society in terms of meat consumption rather than allowing a portion of the population to starve for the sake of upholding tradition—for what good is tradition if people are starving and continue to live in situations of hunger and desperation? 

“He said: The fish-hawk song [the first of the folk-songs in the anthology] is pleasant without being licentious, its melancholy does not hurt (does not wound).”

In this passage Confucius is citing the first of the classical poems that were well known during this time and are considered the first great work of literature to come out of China. This epic poem depicts the ideal marriage between a king and queen, where the queen maintains her devotion to her husband regardless of his infidelities. For Confucius, this poem is significant, since it depicts the virtue of stability and maintenance of civil relations in the face of problems and issues, even within domestic life.

“Tze-Kung asked how Kung-Wan got to be called ‘Wan,’ the accomplished. Confucius said: He was active, loved study and was not ashamed to question his inferiors, therefore described as “‘the accomplished.’”

In this passage Confucius is responding to a question from a colleague who asked why people call their acquaintance, Kung-Wan, the accomplished one. As Confucius replies, Kung-Wan is known as being accomplished precisely because he exhibited the behaviors of the “proper man”—i.e., he remained committed to the maxim that one acts only within the bounds of one’s knowledge such that their actions reflect their level of moral development, while gesturing toward the fact that they remain active in cultivating their character. Additionally, Kung-Wan’s openness regarding the blind spots in his knowledge confirms the transparency of his actions, actions that reflect that Kung-Wan is the kind of person who knows himself well enough to act in the appropriate manner when he does not know something (i.e., asking questions as opposed to pretending like he knows).

“Yuan Sze being made governor, declined 900 measures of grain given him [...] Confucius said: Don’t, they could be given to your big and little hamlets, villages, towns.”

In this passage Confucius is commenting on the best course of action politicians should take when confronted with a situation wherein they are given gifts or forms of tribute. With respect to the case of Yuan Sze who declined accepting 900 measures of grain, Confucius argues that there is nothing noble in denying gifts or tribute; the one who denies these forms of tribute does not become more moral in his actions. In fact, says Confucius, this act of denying the gift of 900 measures of grain is a sign of an immature and inexperienced governor precisely because by accepting the grain one would be able to feed the people of their region while also storing the remainder of the grain for times of famine, crisis, or unrest.

“When a state is functioning, poverty and meannes are shameful; when a state is in chaos (ill governed) riches and honours are shameful.”

In this passage Confucius is outlining a functioning and disorderly state’s relationship to the existence of poverty and meanness on the part of its people. With respect to properly organized and functioning states, Confucius claims that in these instances individuals feel shame when confronted with the fact of poverty or with the offensive or aggressive behaviors of others. In disorderly states, individuals develop feelings of resentment toward the wealthy and those with social clout and come to perceive the successes of others as what is truly shameful in their lives.

“The commander of three army corps can be kidnapped, you cannot kidnap a plain man’s will.”

In this passage Confucius is responding to colleague’s questions about the relationship between moral character (manhood) and the individuals who hold political or military positions of power and leadership. To these questions, and as this passage suggests, Confucius replies by saying that what is more important than the position itself (whether it be a commander of an army or the president of a people) is whether or not the commander or leader has done the necessary work that allows the people to govern themselves in his absence. It is for this reason that the political will of the people is more important than a commander of an army, since one can be kidnapped while the other can only be inevitably confronted.

“He said: Hui’s no help, he’s pleased with everything I say.”

In this passage Confucius is responding to a colleague who asks what Confucius thinks of their mutual acquaintance, Hui. Confucius’ reply—that he is of no help since he agrees with everything Confucius says—is meant to suggest that being agreeable in all circumstances and in all cases is a hindrance on the moral development of one’s character and personality. As we have seen earlier, the “accomplished” individual is the one who knows when they do not know and asks questions in order to further their knowledge. By contrast, someone such as Hui, because he is agreeable in all instances, fails to know the limits to his own knowledge and therefore cannot be said to have cultivated manhood.

“Chi Lu asked about the service for ghosts and spirits. Confucius said: You cannot be useful to the living, how can you be useful to (serve) ghosts? 

‘Venture to ask about death.’ [He] said: Not understanding life, how can you understand death?”

In this passage, Confucius’s friend Chi Lu asks him about the proper relationship one should maintain with the dead and past generations. Perhaps to the surprise of Chi Lu, Confucius responds by reframing the very question in order to emphasize the point that understanding how to treat the living is not only of a higher priority, but is a necessary requirement for knowing how to mourn and remember the dead in a respectful and filial manner. For Confucius one must understand how to treat the living before worrying about mourning the dead precisely because the correct way of mourning the death of a friend or loved one involves remembering them as they were during their lifetime. Thus, failing to have knowledge of what people are like when they are alive forecloses the possibility of being able to appropriately mourn them and remember them in death.

“He said: You bumpkin! Sprout! When a proper man doesn’t know something, he shows some reserve [...] If words are not precise, they cannot be followed out, or complete in action according to specifications [...] When the services are not brought to true focus, the ceremonies and music will not prosper [...] Therefore the proper man must have terms that can be spoken, and when uttered be carried into effect; the proper man’s words must cohere to things, correspond to them (exactly) and no more fuss about it.”

In this passage, Confucius further clarifies his remarks regarding the relationship between knowledge and the moral character of manhood. For Confucius, one of the main reasons the individual who possesses manhood is also the person who can be said to possess knowledge is precisely because the whole purpose of knowledge and cultivating moral character is to have a worldly impact through one’s actions. Thus, says Confucius, only the individual who possesses manhood will know how to express commands and wishes in such a way that their message can be acted upon and carried out by others without misunderstanding or hesitation. 

“With a real king, it would need a generation to produce the consequent humanisation.”

In this passage, Confucius returns to his theme of the relationship between governance and the development of moral character within a people. For Confucius, a real king only needs one generation to produce a population that is moral and virtuous precisely because, given the lifetime of a single generation, that cohort would be exposed, for the whole of their lives, to a leader who was virtuous and moral in every aspect of their lives. In this way, they would live their lives according to a moral model and be able to pass down that model behavior to their children, thereby ensuring that future generations also develop their moral existence.

“He said: He who has the virtu to act on his own wit must have words, but he who has words needn’t necessarily act according to conscience. He who is manly must have courage, audacity, but he who is audacious needn’t necessarily have full humanitas, manhood.”

In this passage Confucius is commenting on the relationship between what one says and what one does, as it relates to the cultivation of manhood. For Confucius, the key lesson to be learned in the difference between the moral individual whose words match their actions (“to act on his own wit must have words”) and the individual who merely knows how to present himself or herself as if they were moral (“he who [only] has words”) is the following: The moral individual requires mastery of language and rhetoric in order that they give instruction to a people who are in need of a clear and distinct vision of society; the immoral individual, or the one who merely has a grasp of rhetoric without the moral will to confirm their message through action, may indeed have mastered the rhetorical skills needed to win over the trust of a people but will ultimately fail in governing precisely insofar as they will eventually appear as a hypocrite who speaks in a moral manner while acting in a less than moral way. 

“When you should talk to a man, and don’t, you lose the man; when it’s no use talking to a man, and you talk to him, you waste words. An intelligent man wastes (loses) neither men nor words.”

In this passage, Confucius is advising his colleagues and friends of the best way of relating to strangers in society. As Confucius points out, it is important for each individual to cultivate the skill of being able to discern when an individual is someone worth speaking to and when someone will only waste your time. For Confucius, the cultivation of manhood is a lifelong process, but he does believe that in the meantime, measures such as cultivating a discerning eye aid in an individual’s overall development.

“Tze-kung asked if there were a single verb that you could practice through life up to the end. He said: Sympathy [...] what you don’t want (done to) yourself, don’t inflict on another.”

In this passage, Confucius’s remark that sympathy is the single virtue that one can practice throughout one’s life suggests to the reader that while Confucius’s ideal standard of manhood may not only be a lifetime of work upon oneself but may also be out of reach for some, there still remains achievable moral goals. Sympathy appears to be within this latter group and seems to be, moreover, the most immediately achievable of goals in the development of the moral individual. Hence, Confucius’s remark that sympathy is the single virtue that can be practiced throughout the whole of life should be read as a claim that sympathy lays the moral foundations for the cultivation of manhood on the part of each individual.

“The proper man has three subjects of meditation: in seeing, that he see with intelligence [...] in hearing, that he hear accurately [...] that his appearance be serene, his bearing respectful, and that his speech come from the plumb centre of his mind [...] that his affairs maintain reverence [...] when in doubt, that he ask questions, and when enraged that he think of troublesome consequence; when he sees the chance of grain, that he think of equity.”

In this passage Confucius gives further clarification regarding the attributes he thinks belong to the moral individual, or the one who possesses manhood, including insight (“seeing with intelligence”), attentiveness (“hear accurately”), poise (“his appearance be serene”), intentional in speech (“that his speech come from the plumb centre of his mind”), honesty (“when in doubt...ask questions”), and commitment to always upholding the value of equality (“he think[s] of equity”). These attributes, says Confucius, are all signs of someone who is in possession of manhood and thus are the characteristics that all individuals should strive to cultivate in themselves.